We introduce a new class of methods for finite-sample false discovery rate (FDR) control in multiple testing problems with dependent test statistics where the dependence is known. Our approach separately calibrates a data-dependent p-value rejection threshold for each hypothesis, relaxing or tightening the threshold as appropriate to target exact FDR control. In addition to our general framework, we propose a concrete algorithm, the dependence-adjusted Benjamini–Hochberg (dBH) procedure, which thresholds the BH-adjusted p-value for each hypothesis. Under positive regression dependence, the dBH procedure uniformly dominates the standard BH procedure, and in general it uniformly dominates the Benjamini–Yekutieli (BY) procedure (also known as BH with log correction), which makes a conservative adjustment for worst-case dependence. Simulations and real data examples show substantial power gains over the BY procedure, and competitive performance with knockoffs in settings where both methods are applicable. When the BH procedure empirically controls FDR (as it typically does in practice), the dBH procedure performs comparably.

Multitask learning and related areas such as multisource domain adaptation address modern settings where data sets from N related distributions $\{{\mathit{P}}_{\mathit{t}}\}$ are to be combined toward improving performance on any single such distribution $\mathcal{D}$. A perplexing fact remains in the evolving theory on the subject: while we would hope for performance bounds that account for the contribution from multiple tasks, the vast majority of analyses result in bounds that improve at best in the number n of samples per task, but most often do not improve in N. As such, it might seem at first that the distributional settings or aggregation procedures considered in such analyses might be somehow unfavorable; however, as we show, the picture happens to be more nuanced, with interestingly hard regimes that might appear otherwise favorable.

In particular, we consider a seemingly favorable classification scenario where all tasks ${\mathit{P}}_{\mathit{t}}$ share a common optimal classifier ${\mathit{h}}^{\ast }$, and which can be shown to admit a broad range of regimes with improved oracle rates in terms of N and n. Some of our main results are:

∙ We show that, even though such regimes admit minimax rates accounting for both n and N, no adaptive algorithm exists, that is, without access to distributional information, no algorithm can guarantee rates that improve with large N for n fixed.

∙ With a bit of additional information, namely, a ranking of tasks $\{{\mathit{P}}_{\mathit{t}}\}$ according to their distance to a target $\mathcal{D}$, a simple rank-based procedure can achieve near optimal aggregations of tasks’ data sets, despite a search space exponential in N. Interestingly, the optimal aggregation might exclude certain tasks, even though they all share the same ${\mathit{h}}^{\ast }$.

Data-driven decision making has drawn scrutiny from policy makers due to fears of potential discrimination, and a growing literature has begun to develop fair statistical techniques. However, these techniques are often specialized to one model context and based on ad hoc arguments, which makes it difficult to perform theoretical analysis. This paper develops an optimization hierarchy, which is a sequence of optimization problems with an increasing number of constraints, for fair statistical decision problems. Because our hierarchy is based on the framework of statistical decision problems, this means it provides a systematic approach for developing and studying fair versions of hypothesis testing, decision making, estimation, regression, and classification. We use the insight that qualitative definitions of fairness are equivalent to statistical independence between the output of a statistical technique and a random variable that measures attributes for which fairness is desired. We use this insight to construct an optimization hierarchy that lends itself to numerical computation, and we use tools from variational analysis and random set theory to prove that higher levels of this hierarchy lead to consistency in the sense that it asymptotically imposes this independence as a constraint in corresponding statistical decision problems. We demonstrate numerical effectiveness of our hierarchy using several data sets, and we use our hierarchy to fairly perform automated dosing of morphine.

We consider linear structural equation models with latent variables and develop a criterion to certify whether the direct causal effects between the observable variables are identifiable based on the observed covariance matrix. Linear structural equation models assume that both observed and latent variables solve a linear equation system featuring stochastic noise terms. Each model corresponds to a directed graph whose edges represent the direct effects that appear as coefficients in the equation system. Prior research has developed a variety of methods to decide identifiability of direct effects in a latent projection framework, in which the confounding effects of the latent variables are represented by correlation among noise terms. This approach is effective when the confounding is sparse and effects only small subsets of the observed variables. In contrast, the new latent-factor half-trek criterion (LF-HTC) we develop in this paper operates on the original unprojected latent variable model and is able to certify identifiability in settings, where some latent variables may also have dense effects on many or even all of the observables. Our LF-HTC is an effective sufficient criterion for rational identifiability, under which the direct effects can be uniquely recovered as rational functions of the joint covariance matrix of the observed random variables. When restricting the search steps in LF-HTC to consider subsets of latent variables of bounded size, the criterion can be verified in time that is polynomial in the size of the graph.

We consider particle filters with weakly informative observations (or ‘potentials’) relative to the latent state dynamics. The particular focus of this work is on particle filters to approximate time-discretisations of continuous-time Feynman–Kac path integral models—a scenario that naturally arises when addressing filtering and smoothing problems in continuous time—but our findings are indicative about weakly informative settings beyond this context too. We study the performance of different resampling schemes, such as systematic resampling, SSP (Srinivasan sampling process) and stratified resampling, as the time-discretisation becomes finer and also identify their continuous-time limit, which is expressed as a suitably defined ‘infinitesimal generator.’ By contrasting these generators, we find that (certain modifications of) systematic and SSP resampling ‘dominate’ stratified and independent ‘killing’ resampling in terms of their limiting overall resampling rate. The reduced intensity of resampling manifests itself in lower variance in our numerical experiment. This efficiency result, through an ordering of the resampling rate, is new to the literature. The second major contribution of this work concerns the analysis of the limiting behaviour of the entire population of particles of the particle filter as the time discretisation becomes finer. We provide the first proof, under general conditions, that the particle approximation of the discretised continuous-time Feynman–Kac path integral models converges to a (uniformly weighted) continuous-time particle system.

In this paper, we study the nonasymptotic and asymptotic performances of the optimal robust policy and value function of robust Markov Decision Processes (MDPs), where the optimal robust policy and value function are estimated from a generative model. While prior work focusing on nonasymptotic performances of robust MDPs is restricted in the setting of the KL uncertainty set and $(\mathit{s},\mathit{a})$-rectangular assumption, we improve their results and also consider other uncertainty sets, including the ${\mathit{L}}_1$ and ${\mathit{\chi }}^2$ balls. Our results show that when we assume $(\mathit{s},\mathit{a})$-rectangular on uncertainty sets, the sample complexity is about $\tilde{\mathcal{O}}(\frac{|\mathcal{S}{|}^2|\mathcal{A}|}{{\mathit{\epsilon }}^2{\mathit{\rho }}^2{(1-\mathit{\gamma })}^4})$. In addition, we extend our results from the $(\mathit{s},\mathit{a})$-rectangular assumption to the s-rectangular assumption. In this scenario, the sample complexity varies with the choice of uncertainty sets and is generally larger than the case under the $(\mathit{s},\mathit{a})$-rectangular assumption. Moreover, we also show that the optimal robust value function is asymptotically normal with a typical rate $\sqrt{\mathit{n}}$ under the $(\mathit{s},\mathit{a})$ and s-rectangular assumptions from both theoretical and empirical perspectives.

Consider a p-dimensional population $\mathbf{x}\in {\mathbb{R}}^{\mathit{p}}$ with i.i.d. coordinates that are regularly varying with index $\mathit{\alpha }\in (0,2)$. Since the variance of x is infinite, the diagonal elements of the sample covariance matrix ${\mathbf{S}}_{\mathit{n}}={\mathit{n}}^{-1}{\sum }_{\mathit{i}=1}^{\mathit{n}}{\mathbf{x}}_{\mathit{i}}{\mathbf{x}}_{\mathit{i}}^{\prime }$ based on a sample ${\mathbf{x}}_1,\dots ,{\mathbf{x}}_{\mathit{n}}$ from the population tend to infinity as n increases and it is of interest to use instead the sample correlation matrix ${\mathbf{R}}_{\mathit{n}}={\{diag({\mathbf{S}}_{\mathit{n}})\}}^{-1/2}{\mathbf{S}}_{\mathit{n}}{\{diag({\mathbf{S}}_{\mathit{n}})\}}^{-1/2}$. This paper finds the limiting distributions of the eigenvalues of ${\mathbf{R}}_{\mathit{n}}$ when both the dimension p and the sample size n grow to infinity such that $\mathit{p}/\mathit{n}\to \mathit{\gamma }\in (0,\infty )$. The family of limiting distributions $\{{\mathit{H}}_{\mathit{\alpha },\mathit{\gamma }}\}$ is new and depends on the two parameters α and γ. The moments of ${\mathit{H}}_{\mathit{\alpha },\mathit{\gamma }}$ are fully identified as sum of two contributions: the first from the classical Marčenko–Pastur law and a second due to heavy tails. Moreover, the family $\{{\mathit{H}}_{\mathit{\alpha },\mathit{\gamma }}\}$ has continuous extensions at the boundaries $\mathit{\alpha }=2$ and $\mathit{\alpha }=0$ leading to the Marčenko–Pastur law and a modified Poisson distribution, respectively.

Our proofs use the method of moments, the path-shortening algorithm developed in [18] (Stochastic Process. Appl. 128 (2018) 2779–2815) and some novel graph counting combinatorics. As a consequence, the moments of ${\mathit{H}}_{\mathit{\alpha },\mathit{\gamma }}$ are expressed in terms of combinatorial objects such as Stirling numbers of the second kind. A simulation study on these limiting distributions ${\mathit{H}}_{\mathit{\alpha },\mathit{\gamma }}$ is also provided for comparison with the Marčenko–Pastur law.

We consider the problem of positive-semidefinite continuation: extending a partially specified covariance kernel from a subdomain Ω of a rectangular domain $\mathit{I}\times \mathit{I}$ to a covariance kernel on the entire domain $\mathit{I}\times \mathit{I}$. For a broad class of domains Ω called serrated domains, we are able to present a complete theory. Namely, we demonstrate that a canonical completion always exists and can be explicitly constructed. We characterise all possible completions as suitable perturbations of the canonical completion, and determine necessary and sufficient conditions for a unique completion to exist. We interpret the canonical completion via the graphical model structure it induces on the associated Gaussian process. Furthermore, we show how the estimation of the canonical completion reduces to the solution of a system of linear statistical inverse problems in the space of Hilbert–Schmidt operators, and derive rates of convergence. We conclude by providing extensions of our theory to more general forms of domains, and by demonstrating how our results can be used to construct covariance estimators from sample path fragments of the associated stochastic process. Our results are illustrated numerically by way of a simulation study and a real example.

This paper studies the estimation of high-dimensional, discrete, possibly sparse, mixture models in the context of topic models. The data consists of observed multinomial counts of p words across n independent documents. In topic models, the $\mathit{p}\times \mathit{n}$ expected word frequency matrix is assumed to be factorized as a $\mathit{p}\times \mathit{K}$ word-topic matrix A and a $\mathit{K}\times \mathit{n}$ topic-document matrix T. Since columns of both matrices represent conditional probabilities belonging to probability simplices, columns of A are viewed as p-dimensional mixture components that are common to all documents while columns of T are viewed as the K-dimensional mixture weights that are document specific and are allowed to be sparse.

The main interest is to provide sharp, finite sample, ${\ell }_1$-norm convergence rates for estimators of the mixture weights T when A is either known or unknown. For known A, we suggest MLE estimation of T. Our nonstandard analysis of the MLE not only establishes its ${\ell }_1$ convergence rate, but also reveals a remarkable property: the MLE, with no extra regularization, can be exactly sparse and contain the true zero pattern of T. We further show that the MLE is both minimax optimal and adaptive to the unknown sparsity in a large class of sparse topic distributions. When A is unknown, we estimate T by optimizing the likelihood function corresponding to a plug in, generic, estimator $\hat{\mathit{A}}$ of A. For any estimator $\hat{\mathit{A}}$ that satisfies carefully detailed conditions for proximity to A, we show that the resulting estimator of T retains the properties established for the MLE. Our theoretical results allow the ambient dimensions K and p to grow with the sample sizes.

Our main application is to the estimation of 1-Wasserstein distances between document generating distributions. We propose, estimate and analyze new 1-Wasserstein distances between alternative probabilistic document representations, at the word and topic level, respectively. We derive finite sample bounds on the estimated proposed 1-Wasserstein distances. For word level document-distances, we provide contrast with existing rates on the 1-Wasserstein distance between standard empirical frequency estimates. The effectiveness of the proposed 1-Wasserstein distances is illustrated by an analysis of an IMDB movie reviews data set. Finally, our theoretical results are supported by extensive simulation studies.

Gaussian process models typically contain finite-dimensional parameters in the covariance function that need to be estimated from the data. We study the Bayesian fixed-domain asymptotics for the covariance parameters in a universal kriging model with an isotropic Matérn covariance function, which has many applications in spatial statistics. We show that when the dimension of domain is less than or equal to three, the joint posterior distribution of the microergodic parameter and the range parameter can be factored independently into the product of their marginal posteriors under fixed-domain asymptotics. The posterior of the microergodic parameter is asymptotically close in total variation distance to a normal distribution with shrinking variance, while the posterior distribution of the range parameter does not converge to any point mass distribution in general. Our theory allows an unbounded prior support for the range parameter and flexible designs of sampling points. We further study the asymptotic efficiency and convergence rates in posterior prediction for the Bayesian kriging predictor with covariance parameters randomly drawn from their posterior distribution. In the special case of one-dimensional Ornstein–Uhlenbeck process, we derive explicitly the limiting posterior of the range parameter and the posterior convergence rate for asymptotic efficiency in posterior prediction. We verify these asymptotic results in numerical experiments.

We consider the batch (off-line) policy learning problem in the infinite horizon Markov decision process. Motivated by mobile health applications, we focus on learning a policy that maximizes the long-term average reward. We propose a doubly robust estimator for the average reward and show that it achieves semiparametric efficiency. Further, we develop an optimization algorithm to compute the optimal policy in a parameterized stochastic policy class. The performance of the estimated policy is measured by the difference between the optimal average reward in the policy class and the average reward of the estimated policy and we establish a finite-sample regret guarantee. The performance of the method is illustrated by simulation studies and an analysis of a mobile health study promoting physical activity.

In this paper, we investigate local permutation tests for testing conditional independence between two random vectors X and Y given Z. The local permutation test determines the significance of a test statistic by locally shuffling samples, which share similar values of the conditioning variables Z, and it forms a natural extension of the usual permutation approach for unconditional independence testing. Despite its simplicity and empirical support, the theoretical underpinnings of the local permutation test remain unclear. Motivated by this gap, this paper aims to establish theoretical foundations of local permutation tests with a particular focus on binning-based statistics. We start by revisiting the hardness of conditional independence testing and provide an upper bound for the power of any valid conditional independence test, which holds when the probability of observing “collisions” in Z is small. This negative result naturally motivates us to impose additional restrictions on the possible distributions under the null and alternate. To this end, we focus our attention on certain classes of smooth distributions and identify provably tight conditions under which the local permutation method is universally valid, that is, it is valid when applied to any (binning-based) test statistic. To complement this result on type I error control, we also show that in some cases, a binning-based statistic calibrated via the local permutation method can achieve minimax optimal power. We also introduce a double-binning permutation strategy, which yields a valid test over less smooth null distributions than the typical single-binning method without compromising much power. Finally, we present simulation results to support our theoretical findings.

As a flexible nonparametric learning tool, the random forests algorithm has been widely applied to various real applications with appealing empirical performance, even in the presence of high-dimensional feature space. Unveiling the underlying mechanisms has led to some important recent theoretical results on the consistency of the random forests algorithm and its variants. However, to our knowledge, almost all existing works concerning random forests consistency in a high-dimensional setting were established for various modified random forests models where the splitting rules are independent of the response; a few exceptions assume simple data generating models with binary features. In light of this, in this paper we derive the consistency rates for the random forests algorithm associated with the sample CART splitting criterion, which is the one used in the original version of the algorithm (Mach. Learn. 45 (2001) 5–32), in a general high-dimensional nonparametric regression setting through a bias-variance decomposition analysis. Our new theoretical results show that random forests can indeed adapt to high dimensionality and allow for discontinuous regression function. Our bias analysis characterizes explicitly how the random forests bias depends on the sample size, tree height and column subsampling parameter. Some limitations on our current results are also discussed.

Completely randomized experiments have been the gold standard for drawing causal inference because they can balance all potential confounding on average. However, they may suffer from unbalanced covariates for realized treatment assignments. Rerandomization, a design that rerandomizes the treatment assignment until a prespecified covariate balance criterion is met, has recently got attention due to its easy implementation, improved covariate balance and more efficient inference. Researchers have then suggested to use the treatment assignments that minimize the covariate imbalance, namely the optimally balanced design. This has caused again the long-time controversy between two philosophies for designing experiments: randomization versus optimal, and thus almost deterministic designs. Existing literature argued that rerandomization with overly balanced observed covariates can lead to highly imbalanced unobserved covariates, making it vulnerable to model misspecification. On the contrary, rerandomization with properly balanced covariates can provide robust inference for treatment effects while sacrificing some efficiency compared to the ideally optimal design. In this paper, we show it is possible that, by making the covariate imbalance diminishing at a proper rate as the sample size increases, rerandomization can achieve its ideally optimal precision that one can expect with perfectly balanced covariates, while still maintaining its robustness. We further investigate conditions on the number of covariates for achieving the desired optimality. Our results rely on a more delicate asymptotic analysis for rerandomization, allowing both diminishing covariate imbalance threshold (or equivalently the acceptance probability) and diverging number of covariates. The derived theory for rerandomization provides a deeper understanding of its large-sample property and can better guide its practical implementation. Furthermore, it also helps reconcile the controversy between randomized and optimal designs in an asymptotic sense.

This paper suggests a multiplicative volatility model where volatility is decomposed into a stationary and a nonstationary persistent part. We provide a testing procedure to determine which type of volatility is prevalent in the data. The persistent part of volatility is associated with a nonstationary persistent process satisfying some smoothness and moment conditions. The stationary part is related to stationary conditional heteroskedasticity. We outline theory and conditions that allow the extraction of the persistent part from the data and enable standard conditional heteroskedasticity tests to detect stationary volatility after persistent volatility is taken into account. Monte Carlo results support the testing strategy in small samples. The empirical application of the theory supports the persistent volatility paradigm, suggesting that stationary conditional heteroskedasticity is considerably less pronounced than previously thought.

We consider the question of estimating the drift for a large class of ergodic multivariate and possibly nonreversible diffusion processes, based on continuous observations, in sup-norm loss. Nonparametric classes of smooth functions of unknown order are considered, and we suggest an adaptive approach which allows to construct drift estimators attaining optimal sup-norm rates of convergence. Reversibility structures and related functional inequalities are known to be key tools for these estimation problems. We can discard such restrictions by making use of mixing properties which are satisfied for the very general class of processes under consideration. Analysing diffusions, the scalar case is very distinct from the general multivariate setting. Therefore, we treat scalar and multivariate processes separately which leads to in several aspects improved univariate results. While we consider drift estimation on bounded domains for exponentially β-mixing multivariate processes, for scalar diffusion processes we work under minimal assumptions that allow estimation of unbounded drift terms over the entire real line, and we provide classical minimax results (including lower bounds) which cannot be obtained under state-of-the-art conditions in the multivariate case. In addition, we prove a Donsker theorem for the classical kernel estimator of the invariant density in the scalar setting and establish its semiparametric efficiency.

How can we discern whether the covariance operator of a stochastic process is of reduced rank, and if so, what its precise rank is? And how can we do so at a given level of confidence? This question is central to a great deal of methods for functional data, which require low-dimensional representations whether by functional PCA or other methods. The difficulty is that the determination is to be made on the basis of i.i.d. replications of the process observed discretely and with measurement error contamination. This adds a ridge to the empirical covariance, obfuscating the underlying dimension. We build a matrix-completion inspired test statistic that circumvents this issue by measuring the best possible least square fit of the empirical covariance’s off-diagonal elements, optimised over covariances of given finite rank. For a fixed grid of sufficiently large size, we determine the statistic’s asymptotic null distribution as the number of replications grows. We then use it to construct a bootstrap implementation of a stepwise testing procedure controlling the familywise error rate corresponding to the collection of hypotheses formalising the question at hand. Under minimal regularity assumptions, we prove that the procedure is consistent and that its bootstrap implementation is valid. The procedure circumvents smoothing and associated smoothing parameters, is indifferent to measurement error heteroskedasticity, and does not assume a low-noise regime. An extensive simulation study reveals an excellent practical performance, stably across a wide range of settings and the procedure is further illustrated by means of two data analyses.

We consider the classical problem of estimating the covariance matrix of a sub-Gaussian distribution from i.i.d. samples in the novel context of coarse quantization, that is, instead of having full knowledge of the samples, they are quantized to one or two bits per entry. This problem occurs naturally in signal processing applications. We introduce new estimators in two different quantization scenarios and derive nonasymptotic estimation error bounds in terms of the operator norm. In the first scenario, we consider a simple, scale-invariant one-bit quantizer and derive an estimation result for the correlation matrix of a centered Gaussian distribution. In the second scenario, we add random dithering to the quantizer. In this case, we can accurately estimate the full covariance matrix of a general sub-Gaussian distribution by collecting two bits per entry of each sample. In both scenarios, our bounds apply to masked covariance estimation. We demonstrate the near optimality of our error bounds by deriving corresponding (minimax) lower bounds and using numerical simulations.

Frequency domain methods form a ubiquitous part of the statistical toolbox for time-series analysis. In recent years, considerable interest has been given to the development of new spectral methodology and tools capturing dynamics in the entire joint distributions, and thus avoiding the limitations of classical, ${\mathit{L}}^2$-based spectral methods. Most of the spectral concepts proposed in that literature suffer from one major drawback, though: their estimation requires the choice of a smoothing parameter, which has a considerable impact on estimation quality and poses challenges for statistical inference. In this paper, associated with the concept of a copula-based spectrum, we introduce the notion of a copula spectral distribution function or integrated copula spectrum. This integrated copula spectrum retains the advantages of copula-based spectra but can be estimated without the need for smoothing parameters. We provide such estimators, along with a thorough theoretical analysis, based on a functional central limit theorem, of their asymptotic properties. We leverage these results to test various hypotheses that cannot be addressed by classical spectral methods, such as the lack of time reversibility or asymmetry in tail dynamics.

We investigate the use of a certain class of functional inequalities known as weak Poincaré inequalities to bound convergence of Markov chains to equilibrium. We show that this enables the straightforward and transparent derivation of subgeometric convergence bounds for methods such as the Independent Metropolis–Hastings sampler and pseudo-marginal methods for intractable likelihoods, the latter being subgeometric in many practical settings. These results rely on novel quantitative comparison theorems between Markov chains. Associated proofs are simpler than those relying on drift/minorisation conditions and the tools developed allow us to recover and further extend known results as particular cases. We are then able to provide new insights into the practical use of pseudo-marginal algorithms, analyse the effect of averaging in Approximate Bayesian Computation (ABC) and the use of products of independent averages and also to study the case of log-normal weights relevant to particle marginal Metropolis–Hastings (PMMH).

Block-based resampling estimators have been intensively investigated for weakly dependent time processes, which has helped to inform implementation (e.g., best block sizes). However, little is known about resampling performance and block sizes under strong or long-range dependence. To establish guideposts in block selection, we consider a broad class of strongly dependent time processes, formed by a transformation of a stationary long-memory Gaussian series, and examine block-based resampling estimators for the variance of the prototypical sample mean; extensions to general statistical functionals are also considered. Unlike weak dependence, the properties of resampling estimators under strong dependence are shown to depend intricately on the nature of nonlinearity in the time series (beyond Hermite ranks) in addition to the long-memory coefficient and block size. Additionally, the intuition has often been that optimal block sizes should be larger under strong dependence (say $\mathit{O}({\mathit{n}}^{1/2})$ for a sample size n) than the optimal order $\mathit{O}({\mathit{n}}^{1/3})$ known under weak dependence. This intuition turns out to be largely incorrect, though a block order $\mathit{O}({\mathit{n}}^{1/2})$ may be reasonable (and even optimal) in many cases, owing to nonlinearity in a long-memory time series. While optimal block sizes are more complex under long-range dependence compared to short-range, we provide a consistent data-driven rule for block selection. Numerical studies illustrate that the guides for block selection perform well in other block-based problems with long-memory time series, such as distribution estimation and strategies for testing Hermite rank.

The Fréchet mean is a useful description of location for a probability distribution on a metric space that is not necessarily a vector space. This article considers simultaneous estimation of multiple Fréchet means from a decision-theoretic perspective, and in particular, the extent to which the unbiased estimator of a Fréchet mean can be dominated by a generalization of the James–Stein shrinkage estimator. It is shown that if the metric space satisfies a nonpositive curvature condition, then this generalized James–Stein estimator asymptotically dominates the unbiased estimator as the dimension of the space grows. These results hold for a large class of distributions on a variety of spaces, including Hilbert spaces and, therefore, partially extend known results on the applicability of the James–Stein estimator to nonnormal distributions on Euclidean spaces. Simulation studies on phylogenetic trees and symmetric positive definite matrices are presented, numerically demonstrating the efficacy of this generalized James–Stein estimator.