We introduce a new class of $\mathfrak{sl}_2$-triples in a complex simple Lie algebra $\mathfrak{g}$, which we call magical. Such an $\mathfrak{sl}_2$-triple canonically defines a real form and various decompositions of $\mathfrak{g}$. Using this decomposition data, we explicitly parametrize special connected components of the moduli space of Higgs bundles on a compact Riemann surface $X$ for an associated real Lie group, hence also of the corresponding character variety of representations of $\pi_1X$ in the associated real Lie group. This recovers known components when the real group is split, Hermitian of tube type, or $\mathrm{SO}_{p,q}$ with $1\lt p\le q$, and also constructs previously unknown components for the quaternionic real forms of $\mathrm{E}_6$, $\mathrm{E}_7$, $\mathrm{E}_8$ and $\mathrm{F}_4$. The classification of magical $\mathfrak{sl}_2$-triples is shown to be in bijection with the set of $\Theta$-positive structures in the sense of Guichard--Wienhard, thus the mentioned parametrization conjecturally detects all examples of higher rank Teichmüller spaces. Indeed, we discuss properties of the surface group representations obtained from these Higgs bundle components and their relation to $\Theta$-positive Anosov representations, which indicate that this conjecture holds.

We study the generalized doubling method for pairs of representations of $G \times \mathrm{GL}_k$ where $G$ is a symplectic group, split special orthogonal group or split general spin group. We analyze the poles of the local integrals and prove that the global completed $L$-function with a cuspidal representation of $\mathrm{GL}_k$ twisted by a highly ramified Hecke character is entire. We obtain a new proof of the weak functorial transfer of cuspidal automorphic representations of $G$ to the natural general linear group, which is independent of the trace formula and its prerequisites, by combining our results with the Converse Theorem.

Let $W$ be a smooth test function with compact support in $(0,\infty)$. Conditional on the Generalized Riemann Hypothesis for Hecke $L$-functions over $\mathbb{Q}(\omega)$, we prove that $$\begin{matrix} \displaystyle \sum_{p \equiv 1 \pmod{3}} \frac{1}{2 \sqrt{p}} \cdot \Big ( \sum_{x \pmod{p}} e^{2\pi i x^3 / p} \Big ) W \Big (\frac{p}{X} \Big ) \\ \displaystyle \qquad\qquad\sim \frac{(2\pi)^{2/3}}{3 \Gamma(\frac{2}{3})} \int_{0}^{\infty} W(x) x^{-1/6} dx \cdot \frac{X^{5/6}}{\log X},\end{matrix}$$as $X\to \infty$ and $p$ runs over primes. This explains a well-known numerical bias in the distribution of cubic Gauss sums first observed by Kummer in 1846 and confirms (conditionally on the Generalized Riemann Hypothesis) a conjecture of Patterson from 1978.

There are two important byproducts of our proof. The first is an explicit level aspect Voronoi summation formula for cubic Gauss sums, extending computations of Patterson and Yoshimoto. Secondly, we show that Heath-Brown's cubic large sieve is sharp up to factors of $X^{o(1)}$ under the Generalized Riemann Hypothesis. This disproves the popular belief that the cubic large sieve can be improved.

An important ingredient in our proof is a dispersion estimate for cubic Gauss sums. It can be interpreted as a cubic large sieve with correction by a non-trivial asymptotic main term. This estimate relies on the Generalized Riemann Hypothesis, and is one of the fundamental reasons why our result is conditional.

We prove a 1973 conjecture due to Erdős on the existence of Steiner triple systems with arbitrarily high girth.