This article develops nonparametric inference procedures for estimation and testing problems for means on manifolds. A central limit theorem for Fréchet sample means is derived leading to an asymptotic distribution theory of intrinsic sample means on Riemannian manifolds. Central limit theorems are also obtained for extrinsic sample means w.r.t. an arbitrary embedding of a differentiable manifold in a Euclidean space. Bootstrap methods particularly suitable for these problems are presented. Applications are given to distributions on the sphere Sd (directional spaces), real projective space ℝPN−1 (axial spaces), complex projective space ℂPk−2 (planar shape spaces) w.r.t. Veronese–Whitney embeddings and a three-dimensional shape space Σ34.
References
Babu, G. J. and Singh, K. (1984). On one term Edgeworth correction by Efron's bootstrap. Sankhyā Ser. A. 46 219--232.
Mathematical Reviews (MathSciNet):
MR778872
Beran, R. (1987). Prepivoting to reduce level error of confidence sets. Biometrika 74 457--468.
Mathematical Reviews (MathSciNet):
MR909351
Beran, R. and Fisher, N. I. (1998). Nonparametric comparison of mean directions or mean axes. Ann. Statist. 26 472--493.
Bhattacharya, R. N. and Chan, N. H. (1996). Comparisons of chisquare, Edgeworth expansions and bootstrap approximations to the distribution of the frequency chisquare. Sankhyā Ser. A 58 57--68.
Bhattacharya, R. N. and Denker, M. (1990). Asymptotic Statistics. Birkhäuser, Boston.
Bhattacharya, R. N. and Ghosh, J. K. (1978). On the validity of the formal Edgeworth expansion. Ann. Statist. 6 434--451.
Mathematical Reviews (MathSciNet):
MR471142
Bhattacharya, R. N. and Patrangenaru, V. (2002). Nonparametric estimation of location and dispersion on Riemannian manifolds. J. Statist. Plann. Inference 108 23--35.
Bhattacharya, R. N. and Patrangenaru, V. (2003). Large sample theory of intrinsic and extrinsic sample means on manifolds. I. Ann. Statist. 31 1--29.
Bhattacharya, R. N. and Qumsiyeh, M. (1989). Second order and $L^p$-comparisons between the bootstrap and empirical Edgeworth expansion methodologies. Ann. Statist. 17 160--169.
Mathematical Reviews (MathSciNet):
MR981442
Bookstein, F. L. (1991). Morphometric Tools for Landmark Data: Geometry and Biology. Cambridge Univ. Press.
Burgoyne, C. F., Thompson, H. W., Mercante, D. E. and Amin, R. (2000). Basic issues in the sensitive and specific detection of optic nerve head surface change within longitudinal LDT TOPSS images. In The Shape of Glaucoma, Quantitative Neural Imaging Techniques (H. G. Lemij and J. S. Schuman, eds.) 1--37. Kugler, The Hague.
Chandra, T. K. and Ghosh, J. K. (1979). Valid asymptotic expansions for likelihood ratio statistic and other perturbed chi-square variables. Sankhyā Ser. A 41 22--47.
Mathematical Reviews (MathSciNet):
MR615038
do Carmo, M. P. (1992). Riemannian Geometry. Birkhäuser, Boston.
Dryden, I. L. and Mardia, K. V. (1993). Multivariate shape analysis. Sankhyā Ser. A 55 460--480.
Dryden, I. L. and Mardia, K. V. (1998). Statistical Shape Analysis. Wiley, New York.
Dupuis, P., Grenander, U. and Miller, M. I. (1998). Variational problems on flows of diffeomorphisms for image matching. Quart. Appl. Math. 56 587--600.
Efron, B. (1982). The Jackknife, the Bootstrap and Other Resampling Plans. SIAM, Philadelphia.
Mathematical Reviews (MathSciNet):
MR659849
Fisher, N. I. and Hall, P. (1992). Bootstrap methods for directional data. In The Art of Statistical Science: A Tribute to G. S. Watson (K. V. Mardia, ed.) 47--63. Wiley, New York.
Fisher, N. I., Hall, P., Jing, B.-Y. and Wood, A. T. A. (1996). Improved pivotal methods for constructing confidence regions with directional data. J. Amer. Statist. Assoc. 91 1062--1070.
Fisher, N. I., Lewis, T. and Embleton, B. J. J. (1987). Statistical Analysis of Spherical Data. Cambridge Univ. Press.
Mathematical Reviews (MathSciNet):
MR899958
Fréchet, M. (1948). Les élements aléatoires de nature quelconque dans un espace distancié. Ann. Inst. H. Poincaré 10 215--310.
Mathematical Reviews (MathSciNet):
MR27464
Goodall, C. (1991). Procrustes methods in the statistical analysis of shape. J. Roy. Statist. Soc. Ser. B 53 285--339.
Goodall, C. and Mardia, K. V. (1999). Projective shape analysis. J. Comput. Graph. Statist. 8 143--168.
Hall, P. (1988). Theoretical comparison of bootstrap confidence intervals (with discussion). Ann. Statist. 16 927--985.
Mathematical Reviews (MathSciNet):
MR959185
Hall, P. (1992). The Bootstrap and Edgeworth Expansion. Springer, New York.
Helgason, S. (1978). Differential Geometry, Lie Groups, and Symmetric Spaces. Academic Press, New York.
Mathematical Reviews (MathSciNet):
MR514561
Hendriks, H. and Landsman, Z. (1998). Mean location and sample mean location on manifolds: Asymptotics, tests, confidence regions. J. Multivariate Anal. 67 227--243.
Hendriks, H., Landsman, Z. and Ruymgaart, F. (1996). Asymptotic behavior of sample mean direction for spheres. J. Multivariate Anal. 59 141--152.
Huber, P. J. (1981). Robust Statistics. Wiley, New York.
Mathematical Reviews (MathSciNet):
MR606374
Karcher, H. (1977). Riemannian center of mass and mollifier smoothing. Comm. Pure Appl. Math. 30 509--541.
Mathematical Reviews (MathSciNet):
MR442975
Kendall, D. G. (1984). Shape manifolds, Procrustean metrics, and complex projective spaces. Bull. London Math. Soc. 16 81--121.
Mathematical Reviews (MathSciNet):
MR737237
Kendall, D. G. (1995). How to look at objects in a five-dimensional shape space: Looking at geodesics. Adv. in Appl. Probab. 27 35--43.
Kendall, D. G., Barden, D., Carne, T. K. and Le, H. (1999). Shape and Shape Theory. Wiley, New York.
Kendall, W. S. (1990). Probability, convexity, and harmonic maps with small image. I. Uniqueness and the fine existence. Proc. London Math. Soc. 61 371--406.
Kent, J. T. (1992). New directions in shape analysis. In The Art of Statistical Science: A Tribute to G. S. Watson (K. V. Mardia, ed.) 115--128. Wiley, New York.
Kent, J. T. (1994). The complex Bingham distribution and shape analysis. J. Roy. Statist. Soc. Ser. B 56 285--299.
Kent, J. T. (1995). Current issues for statistical interest in shape analysis. In Proc. in Current Issues in Statistical Shape Analysis 167--175. Univ. Leeds Press.
Kobayashi, S. and Nomizu, K. (1996). Foundations of Differential Geometry 1, 2. Wiley, New York.
Le, H. (1998). On the consistency of Procrustean mean shapes. Adv. in Appl. Probab. 30 53--63.
Le, H. (2001). Locating Fréchet means with application to shape spaces. Adv. in Appl. Probab. 33 324--338.
Mardia, K. V. and Jupp, P. E. (2000). Directional Statistics. Wiley, New York.
Mardia, K. V. and Patrangenaru, V. (2005). Directions and projective shapes. Ann. Statist. 33(4). To appear.
Milnor, J. W. and Stasheff, J. D. (1974). Characteristic Classes. Princeton Univ. Press.
Mathematical Reviews (MathSciNet):
MR440554
Patrangenaru, V. (1998). Asymptotic statistics on manifolds. Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana Univ.
Patrangenaru, V. (2001). New large sample and bootstrap methods on shape spaces in high level analysis of natural images. Comm. Statist. Theory Methods 30 1675--1693.
Prentice, M. J. (1984). A distribution-free method of interval estimation for unsigned directional data. Biometrika 71 147--154.
Mathematical Reviews (MathSciNet):
MR738335
Prentice, M. J. and Mardia, K. V. (1995). Shape changes in the plane for landmark data. Ann. Statist. 23 1960--1974.
Smale, S. (1961). Generalized Poincaré's conjecture in dimensions greater than four. Ann. of Math. 74 391--406.
Mathematical Reviews (MathSciNet):
MR137124
Small, C. G. (1996). The Statistical Theory of Shape. Springer, New York.
Spivak, M. (1979). A Comprehensive Introduction to Differential Geometry 1, 2, 2nd ed. Publish or Perish, Wilmington, DE.
Srivastava, A. and Klassen, E. (2002). Monte Carlo extrinsic estimators of manifold-valued parameters. IEEE Trans. Signal Process. 50 299--308.
Watson, G. S. (1983). Statistics on Spheres. Wiley, New York.
Mathematical Reviews (MathSciNet):
MR709262
Ziezold, H. (1977). On expected figures and a strong law of large numbers for random elements in quasi-metric spaces. In Transactions of the Seventh Prague Conference on Information Theory, Statistical Decision Functions, Random Processes and of the Eighth European Meeting of Statisticians A 591--602. Reidel, Dordrecht.
Mathematical Reviews (MathSciNet):
MR501230